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亚里士多德观点： 知识的定义

“We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing,

as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when

we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that

fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is.

Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident—witnesses both

those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former

merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the

condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific

knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is.”

—Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2)

关于知识定义的争议

The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers

in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not

ultimately endorsed by Plato, has it that in order for there to be knowledge at

least three criteria must be fulfilled; that in order to count as knowledge, a

statement must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these

conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate.

There are a number of alternatives

proposed, including Robert Nozick’s arguments for a requirement that

knowledge “tracks the truth” and Simon Blackburn’s additional requirement that

we do not want to say that those who meet any of these conditions “through a

defect, flaw, or failure” have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our

definition of knowledge requires that the believer’s evidence is such that it

logically necessitates the truth of the belief.

知识的概念

Knowledge is defined (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (1) expertise,

and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical

or practical understanding of a subject, (2) what is known in a particular field

or in total; facts and information or (3) awareness or familiarity gained by

experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with

Plato’s formulation of knowledge as “justified true belief”. There is however no

single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and

there remain numerous competing theories.

感知的概念

Perception is defined as a process by which organisms interpret and organize

sensation to produce a meaningful experience of the world. Sensation usually

refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation of sensory

receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other

hand, better describes one’s ultimate experience of the world and typically

involves further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation and

perception are virtually impossible to separate, because they are part of one

continuous process. Our sense organs translate physical energy from the

environment into electrical impulses processed by the brain. For example, light,

in the form of electromagnetic radiation, causes receptor cells in our eyes to

activate and send signals to the brain. But we do not understand these signals

as pure energy. The process of perception allows us to interpret them as

objects, events, people, and situations. Without the ability to organize and

interpret sensations, life would seem like a meaningless jumble of colors,

shapes, and sounds. A person without any perceptual ability would not be able to

recognize faces, understand language, or avoid threats. Such a person would not

survive for long. In fact, many species of animals have evolved exquisite

sensory and perceptual systems that aid their survival.