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由感觉到知觉

Organizing raw sensory stimuli into meaningful experiences involves

cognition, a set of mental activities that includes thinking, knowing, and

remembering. Knowledge and experience are extremely important for perception,

because they help us make sense of the input to our sensory systems. You could

probably read the text, but not as easily as when you read letters in their

usual orientation. Knowledge and experience allowed you to understand the text.

获取知识的四大条件

The four requirements for knowledge are: S knows that P if (1) S knows that P

is true; (2) S believes that P is true; (3) S is justified in believing that P

is true; (4) S’s justification in believing that P does not rest on any false

beliefs. Without these requirements, you cannot have knowledge. Your thought may

still be true, however, you cannot know something if it is possible it is not

true. This brings us to how you know if what you think is true. However, it is

impossible for us to have this certainty. Infallible knowledge is impossible for

humans to obtain based on the fact that there is always a chance that we are

mistaken. Yet, the Epistemist argues: the refutation of skepticism is pure and

simple. I know that there is a piece of paper in front of me, for I see a piece

of paper in front of me. Skepticism says that I do not know this. Therefore

skepticism is wrong. However, just as in the Epistemist’s example, the only way

we can obtain knowledge is through our five senses. Whether we learn something

from a class lecture, reading a book, or touching something, we are relying on

our senses to convey the knowledge to us.

知识的交流和传播

Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought

of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can

be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other

forms of communication include imitation, narrative exchange along with a range

of other methods. There is no complete theory of knowledge transfer or

communication.

While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools

for the transfer of knowledge would be the different systems of writing,

argument over the usefulness of the written word exists, however, with some

scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. The scholar Socrates recounts the

story of Thamus the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word.

In this story, Theuth presents his new invention “writing” to King Thamus,

telling Thamus that his new invention “will improve both the wisdom and memory

of the Egyptians”. King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it

as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. He argues that the

written word will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as they will be

able to attain facts and stories from an external source and will no longer be

forced to mentally retain large quantities of knowledge themselves.

创新的定义

A convenient definition of innovation from an organizational perspective is

given by Luecke and Katz (2003), who wrote: “Innovation is generally understood

as the introduction of a new thing or method. Innovation is the embodiment,

combination, or synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant, valued new

products, processes, or services.”

Innovation typically involves creativity, but is not identical to it:

innovation involves acting on the creative ideas to make some specific and

tangible difference in the domain in which the innovation occurs. For example,

Amabile (1996) propose: “All innovation begins with creative ideas. We define

innovation as the successful implementation of creative ideas within an

organization. In this view, creativity by individuals and teams is a starting

point for innovation; the first is necessary but not sufficient condition for

the second”.

For innovation to occur, something more than the generation of a creative

idea or insight is required: the insight must be put into action to make a

genuine difference, resulting in, for example, new or altered business processes

within the organization, or changes in the products and services provided.