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完整心理学

How people perceive a well-organized pattern or whole, instead of many

separate parts, is a topic of interest in Gestalt psychology. According to

Gestalt psychologists, the whole is different than the sum of its parts. Gestalt

is a German word—meaning configuration or pattern.

There are a number of principles by which people organize isolated parts of a

visual stimulus into groups or whole objects. There are five main laws of

grouping: proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and common fate. A sixth

law, that of simplicity, encompasses all of these laws. Although most often

applied to visual perception, the Gestalt laws also apply to perception in other

senses. When we listen to music, for example, we do not hear a series of

disconnected or random tones. We interpret the music as a whole, relating the

sounds to each other based on how similar they are in pitch, how close together

they are in time, and other factors. We can perceive melodies, patterns, and

form in music. When a song is transposed to another key, we still recognize it,

even though all of the notes have changed.

1. Proximity: The law of proximity states that the closer objects are to one

another, the more likely we are to mentally group them together

2. Similarity: The law of similarity leads us to link together parts of the

visual field that are similar in color, lightness, texture, shape, or any other

quality

3. Continuity: The law of continuity leads us to see a line as continuing in

a particular direction, rather than making an abrupt turn

弗洛伊德的人格理论

The development of gender roles in different forms of feminism gives us a

revealing overview of Freud’s personality theory. It is relatively easy,

however, to find oneself torn between open-heartedly going along with Freud’s

view of personality as a dynamic system of psychological energy which is a very

complex, yet insightful approach to the development of personality. The nature

of the id, ego, and superego, and the psychosexual stages that these three

structures focus on during a course of one’s development, give a plethora of

reasons to believe in the existence of a critical period in gender development.

Freud’s theory suggests that the way in which the id, ego, and superego evolve

and the way in which they proliferate in the first six years of a child’s life

will influence the child’s emotional attachment to his/her parent of the same

sex and, as consequence, the child’s gender identification. It is not Freud’s

belief about the id, ego, and superego that raises our eyebrow, but rather his

rigid sex-based generalization of gender

development. However, Freud’s generalization seems to underestimate the

impact of genetics and broader social cues, and to overestimate children’s

cognitive capabilities during the maturing stage and the impact of the

child-parent relationship on children’s gender development.

希波克拉底观点： 四大性格类型

In the middle of the 15th century B.C.E., Hippocrates explained the four

temperaments in terms of dominant humors in the body: melancholic, sanguine,

phlegmatic, or choleric. The melancholic, he claimed, was dominated by yellow

bile in the kidneys, the sanguine by humors in the blood, the phlegmatic by

phlegm, and the choleric by the black bile of the liver. Hippocrates was simply

adding to the ancient Greek insight that all things reduced to earth, air, water

and fire. Each of the four elements had its dualities: hot/cold and dry/moist. A

person’s physical, psychological, and moral qualities could easily be understood

by his/ner temperament, his/ner dominant humors, the four basic elements, or

whether he/she was hot and wet or cold and dry. The ancient personality type

indicator worked for over one thousand years. Today, most of us have abandoned

Hippocrates’ personality scheme because we do not find it to have any meaningful

use.