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观众眼中的新闻： 新闻是风险信号

Audiences may interpret news as a risk signal. A “risk signal” is

characterized by two factors, an element of change (or uncertainty) and the

relevance of that change to the security of the individual.

The same two conditions are observed to be characteristic of news. The news‟

value of a story, if defined in terms of the interest it carries for an

audience, is determined by the degree of change it contains and the relevance

that change has for the individual or group. Analysis shows that journalists and

publicists manipulate both the element of change and relevance (“security

concern”) to maximize, or in some cases play down, the strength of a story.

新闻业中的“高射炮”

Flak refers to negative responses to a media statement or program. The term

“flak” has been used to describe targeted efforts to discredit organizations or

individuals who disagree with or cast doubt on the prevailing assumptions which

are favorable to established power. Unlike the first three “filtering”

mechanisms—which are derived from analysis of market mechanisms—flak is

characterized by concerted and intentional efforts to manage public

information.

Flak from the powerful can be either direct or indirect. The direct could

include the following hypothetical scenarios:

1. Letters or phone calls

2. Inquiries from the FCC to major television networks requesting documents

used to plan and assemble a program

3. Messages from irate executives representing advertising agencies or

corporate sponsors to media officials threatening retaliation if not granted

on-air reply time

媒体偏见

Media bias is a term used to describe a real or perceived bias of journalists

and news producers within the mass media, in the selection of which events will

be reported and how they are covered. The term “media bias” usually refers to a

pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather

than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and

degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed, since its causes

are both practical and theoretical.

Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of

journalists to report all available stories and facts, and the requirement that

selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative. Since it is impossible to

report everything, some bias is inevitable. Government influence, including

overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries. Market

forces that can result in a biased presentation include the ownership of the

news source, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, or

pressure from advertisers. Political affiliations arise from ideological

positions of media owners and journalists. The space or air time available for

reports, as well as deadlines needed to be met, can lead to incomplete and

apparently biased stories.