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人类发展理论

Human development theory is a theory that merges older ideas from ecological

economics, sustainable development, welfare economics, and feminist economics.

It seeks to avoid the overt normative politics of most so-called “green

economics” by justifying its theses strictly in ecology, economics and sound

social science, and by working within a context of globalization.

It focuses on measuring well-being and detecting uneconomic growth that comes

at the expense of human health. However, it goes further in seeking not only to

measure but to optimize well-being by some explicit modeling of how social

capital and instructional capital can be deployed to optimize the overall value

of human capital in an economy—which is itself part of ecology. The role of

individual capital within that ecology, and the adaptation of the individual to

live well within it, is a major focus of these theories.

社会进步指标

Theorists usually measured progression (that is, the difference between one

stage and the next) in terms of increasing social complexity (including class

differentiation and a complex division of labor), or an increase in

intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. Those 19th-century

ethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious

beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies.

社会进步与政府干预以及两大社会类型

Society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individuals; and so that

government intervention ought to be minimal in social and political life,

differentiated between two phases of development, focusing on the type of

internal regulation within societies.

Military and industrial societies are differentiated. (The earlier, more

primitive military society has a goal of conquest and defense, is centralized,

economically self-sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of a group over the

good of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, and rewards

loyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial society has a goal of

production and trade, is decentralized, interconnected with other societies via

economic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation and

individual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as the highest value,

regulates the social life via and voluntary relations, values initiative,

independence and innovation.)

技术进步有赖于其他社会组织

The development of technology is dependent on the presence of other types of

social organizations. Nobel laureate economist Arthur Lewis observed that the

mechanization of factory production in England which became known as the

Industrial Revolution was a direct result of the reorganization of English

agriculture. The enclosure of common lands in England generated surplus income

for the farmers. That extra income generated additional raw materials for

industrial processing along with greater demand for industrial products which

was difficult to meet by traditional manufacturing processes. The opening of sea

trade gave an added boost in demand for industrial production for export.

Factory production increased many times when production was reorganized using

steam energy combined with moving assembly lines, specialization and

division

of labor. Thus, technological development was both a result of and a

contributing factor to the overall development of society.